The Biggest Curiosity Quest?
What Came First?
Chicken or Eggs?
What about Higgs?
What Came First?
Field or Boson?
Give Science a Test,
Not a Big Concern,
We do have LHC at CERN,
And Learned Lesson,
That there is more,
And more to Learn,
Well, Science is Fun,
Give LHC few more Run,
We have History to Remake,
After all, LHC is “A Piece of Cake”.
Since the 19th century physics has been trying very hard to find
the elementary particles, the fundamental building blocks of nature. Today it's
the job of particle physicists who literally study the building blocks of
nature and their properties. Speaking of which CERN is the European
Organization for Nuclear Research just outside Geneva. It is kind of wonderland
for particle physicists as there are thousands of physicists from around the
world who are involved in research there. It's got everything that a small town
should have like restaurants, a post office, travel agents, hotels. It's a kind
of town populated exclusively, though, by particle physicists. Particle physics
is a thriving field that gave us understanding that objects around us are made
of atoms which in turn are made of subatomic elementary particles. The idea
that all matter is fundamentally composed of elementary particles dates from at
least the 6th century BC. Democritus was the guy who really pushed
an idea that his predecessor didn't write anything and publish or perish in the
academic world. Democritus was an ancient Greek philosopher and a true scientist,
2,500 years ago he had the idea that the world is made of countless indivisible
particles in a void. The word atom, after the Greek word atomos meaning
"indivisible", Democritus was the first to print the idea that the
world is made of atoms what we would now call elementary particles. Democritus
had the idea that you see a bunch of things around as liquids like water, solids
like wood, you see air are the substances that appear very different with different
properties, they look different, they react differently and yet they are not
fundamentally different but just different arrangements of the same underlying
thing called atoms. Ancient Greeks would have thought these were all
fundamentally different things, but the atomists like Democritus had this astonishing
idea about the way the world works. Today, particle physicists are driven by
the same impulse as the Democritus. Even though atoms weren't truly elementary
that he was on the right track and it took a long time to get that idea right, it
turns out to be right and so particle physicists now are the intellectually descendant
of Democritus's ideas that we call as particle physics. He was a man with
passionate desire to know the Cosmos, scientists give him credit for launching
the bandwagon we currently knows particle physics and so essentially Democritus
was the first theoretical particle physicist or the father of particle physics.
Since then atoms are denoted as the smallest particle of a chemical element,
but physicists soon discovered that atoms are not, in fact, the fundamental
particles of nature, but are conglomerates of even smaller particles.
The periodic table of the chemical elements as we know it that
dates back to the 19th century. So at the end of the 19th century, the
understood theory of what the universe is made from is, there are more than a
hundred different chemical elements. John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry,
concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of
particle. And thanks to this Dalton's atomic theory, what he said was that for
every element like hydrogen, and helium, lithium and so on, there was an atom,
which was thought to be something fundamental, indivisible, indestructible
little thing and you had different atoms, one for every element. Then at the
turn of the 20th century when the electron was discovered, that revised
everything. In the early 1930s, it was discovered that the nucleus itself is
made of even smaller things called protons and neutrons. Inside the atomic
nucleus, in the middle there are big heavy particles protons and neutrons stuck
together by the nuclear force and there are electrons orbiting on the outside
attracted to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. And so we got the model
of the atom that we all learn about in school, which is a positively charged
nucleus which contains most of the mass of the atom around which go these
electrons. Now, if you look at the
periodic table in the way that the elements were arranged, there are certain
patterns in the properties of the different chemical elements as the way they
are arranged. They get more reactive as you go down and that was sort of
indication of some deeper structure. So essentially you can explain the
properties of all these different elements by different numbers of electrons
going around the outside of atoms. The electrons are what determine the
chemical properties of that particular element. The proton is positively
charged while the neutron is electrically neutral; these nucleons are much
heavier or massive than electrons. We thought these were elementary but turns
out that they're not; science did not stop there and discovered more particles
as you zoom into the nucleus, even protons and neutrons are made of smaller
particles called quarks. In the 1960s, theoretical physicists were working on
an elegant way of describing the fundamental laws of nature in terms of quantum
field theory. It was really in the 1970s that the search for the Higgs boson began
in earnest, the 1970s were an era when quantum field theory really became
triumphant. In the 1960s and even before that all the way back to the 30s
scientists had ideas of quantum field theory, but it wasn't until the late 1960s
and early 1970s that scientists realized that this was the right way to think
about nature at a fundamental level. In quantum field theory, both matter
particles (fermions such as electrons, or the quarks inside protons) and the
force carriers (bosons such as the photon, or the gluons that bind quarks) are
manifestations of underlying, fundamental quantum fields. We also have
neutrinos and muons; so there is a whole zoo of elementary particles and
particle physicists really tried to figure out what all these particles were
and how they all fitted together in terms of the model. Today we call this
elegant description the Standard Model of particle physics.
The matter particles in the universe called fermions and there
are force carrying particles called bosons. The Standard Model describes three
of the four fundamental interactions in nature; only gravity remains unexplained.
In the Standard Model, such an interaction is described as an exchange of
bosons between the objects affected, such as a photon for the electromagnetic
force and a gluon for the strong interaction. Those particles are called force
carriers or messenger particles. Neutrinos are sort of like ghosts as they are
invisible, almost undetectable particles and they very rarely interact with the
ordinary matter that we're made out of. So that's why we are not really that
aware of the existence of neutrinos most of the time. There are trillions of
them go straight through you, straight through the earth as they are produced
by the sun in vast quantities. Muon is a sort of heavy cousins of electron
which is about 200 times more massive than the electron. Also the reason we're
not made of muons because it decays into an electron and some neutrinos.
They're unstable, but you can make them in high-energy collisions like at the
LHC. Gluons are kind of force particles that bind protons and neutrons together
and hence called a gluon because it glues things, essentially. So there is a
whole zoo of elementary particles. The four matter particles are neutrino, the
down quark, the up quark and the electron. For particles that makes up matter
turn out to be a single family of particles but then there are three
generations of matter particles as the same pattern repeated three times that
little bit is a mystery. On top there are bosons and then way up all by itself
in the corner there's this lonely little thing called the Higgs boson. As a new
particle and that thing, ripple in the Higgs field gives mass to the particles which
we are made of, at least, is this field. And the Higgs boson really is the
proof that this field is out there. And that's why finding it was so important,
because the Higgs mechanism; the process by which the particles get mass is
absolutely fundamental to the Standard Model. It's kind of like the keystone in
an arch.
So what’s about the Higgs? It’s not the biggest curiosity
question that what came first, chicken or eggs? But what came first the Higgs
field or Higgs boson? In the Higgs boson's case, the field came first. Fundamentally
speaking what gives you mass is a very different question to what gives you
weight. Gravity pulling down on your body gives you weight and your weight can
change depending on the gravity of the planet that you are on, even though
you're so made of the same amount of stuff that we call as a mass. Before
Newton’s contribution, most previously known forces arose when two objects
pushed or pulled each other via physical contact, whereas Newton’s
gravitational force evidently operated across great voids of empty space. Over
the next two centuries after Newton, such concerns gave rise to the notion of a
space-filling field, which can be imagined as the medium that transmits the
message. By the 1840s, however, the creators of hydrodynamics were treating
fluid properties—velocity, density, pressure—as fields. Hydrodynamic concepts,
in turn, soon provided the basis for the 19th century’s most celebrated field
theory, the electromagnetism of James Clerk Maxwell. Today no one doubts the
reality of fields; anyone who has sprinkled iron filings on a piece of paper
above a bar magnet has perceived a field pretty directly. Back then, the
existence of fields was less obvious. More precisely, a field is a continuous
and continuously varying plane of action through which disturbances propagate,
eliminating the conceptual knot of “action at a distance.” The idea of modern
physics is that the world is not made of particles but it's made of fields, a
field unlike a particle is spread out everywhere throughout the universe. That
there is a field filling the universe and what that means mathematically just
that at every point in space; there is a number at every point in space and
time, the value of the field just like the temperature of the air in this room
and every point there's a value the temperature at that point of the air but
this is not some phenomenology of the matter this is this a fundamental feature
of reality. The most familiar example of this is light: light is simultaneously
a wave in the electromagnetic field and a stream of particles called photons.
Photon is the particle of light that transmits the electromagnetic interaction,
so light itself is also an electromagnetic phenomenon. Very much similar to our
current description of Nature, every particle is a wave in a field. The Higgs
field was proposed in 1964 as a new kind of field that fills the entire
Universe that gives mass to all elementary particles. The Higgs boson is a wave
in that field. On July 4th 2012, CERN scientists announced that experiments at
the Large Hadron Collider discovered the Higgs boson that Peter Higgs predicted
back in 1964; this discovery was a massive worldwide media sensation. The
existence of this mass-giving Higgs field was confirmed in 2012, when the Higgs
boson particle was discovered at CERN. Particles get their mass by interacting
with the Higgs field; they do not have a mass of their own. The stronger a
particle interacts with the Higgs field, the heavier the particle ends up
being. Photons, for example, do not interact with Higgs field and therefore
have no mass. Yet other elementary particles, including electrons, quarks and
bosons do interact and hence have a variety of masses. Peter Higgs and his
colleagues with whom he was working with roundabout the same time essentially
said that imagine that throughout the entire universe there is an additional
cosmic quantum field and just like the other fields that these massive particles
are ripples move through it. Higgs bosons are these things that scientists
think are massive and are imbued with mass by Higgs field. Back in the 1960s, Scientist
had the idea of the Higgs boson but they hadn't actually seen evidence for it. So
Peter Higgs went back to his paper and he said, well, I need to connect this
with something that could be experimentally measured. And what he added to his
paper was basically one line that said, if this cosmic energy field that gives
mass to all the particles exists, then you should be able to create a ripple or
a disturbance in it which would show up. Because it can be used to pretty much
explain all the physics that we can see around us as some scientists think that
it's the closest we have to a “theory of everything”. So we can use this
science in principle to describe everything from how a light bulb produces
photons to how atoms are fused together inside stars. And as we know how the
formation of stars then caused a tremendous ripple effect and helped shape the
universe as we know it. Heat within the stars caused the conversion of helium
and hydrogen into almost all the remaining elements in the universe. In turn,
those elements became the building blocks for planets, moons, life, everything
we see today. This ecosystem of everything was only possible because of the
many stages in the universe’s development. While countless questions about the
origins of our universe remain, it’s only a matter of time for some long-sought
answers to emerge.
Peter Higgs wrote his paper in early 1964, he had this idea
which was written down with very elegant mathematics. The Higgs field named
after him, although many others contributed to the idea. And this theory is
really a kind of incredible achievement as this was not the idea of a single
lone genius like Einstein but democratic idea as it took many sociable geniuses
to put this idea together. So the next step was to actually look for it because
it's very nice to have a theory that fits together and makes sense, but we
really want to get the direct evidence that they were on the right track. In
particle physics that means building new more energetic, more powerful particle
accelerators. The Higgs boson can't be “discovered” by finding it somewhere but
has to be created in a particle collision. Once created, it transforms – or
“decays” – into other particles that can be detected in particle detectors. This
is a really the way that particle physics gets its direct evidence by Einstein's
famous equation (E=Mc2) relating the energy of an object at rest to its mass
times the speed of light squared. It's the energy a particle has when it's not
moving, so it enables us to bring into existence new particles with heavier
masses than before if we can squeeze a lot of energy into a very tiny amount of
space. So that's what a particle accelerator does, it accelerates other
particles to extremely high velocities. Once those particles get a tremendous
amount of energy together and then accelerator smashes them together, so
there's a lot of energy in very tiny amount of space that creates more massive
particles. Physicists look for traces of these particles in data collected by
the detectors. The challenge is that these particles are also produced in many
other processes, plus the Higgs boson only appears in about one in a billion
LHC collisions. But careful statistical analysis of enormous amounts of data
uncovered the particle's faint signal in 2012. Ten years ago, on 4 July 2012, the
ATLAS and CMS collaborations presented compelling evidence for the discovery of
a new particle, Higgs boson to a packed auditorium at CERN. This confirmed the
existence of the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism, first predicted by theorists in
the 1960s. In CERN’s auditorium, Peter Higgs wiped away tears of joy, and
François Englert paid tribute to his late colleague and collaborator, Robert
Brout, who did not live to see proof of the mechanism that bears his name. At
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiment to produce Higgs bosons, two beams of
particles are accelerated to very high energies and allowed to collide within a
particle detector. The two experiments ATLAS and CMS at CERN, both of these are
very big and really look like an alien spaceship. They're given lots of energy
when smashed into each other. So as we know Einstein's equation (E=Mc2) that
tells us that energy and matter are essentially interchangeable. The amount of
mass you can make is equal to the energy (E) divided by square of the speed of
light (c). So that tells you how heavy the particle is that you can possibly
create. And that's one way of doing physics, that's how the Higgs was
discovered. This particle had no electrical charge, it was short-lived and it
decayed in ways that the Higgs boson should, according to theory. To confirm if
it really was the Higgs boson, physicists needed to check its “spin” – the Higgs
boson is the only particle to have a spin of zero as hypothesized in 1964 by
Peter Higgs. In the mainstream media, the Higgs boson has often been called the
"God particle" from the 1993 book The God Particle by Nobel Laureate Leon Lederman, although the nickname
is not endorsed by many physicists. Discovering the Higgs boson was just the
beginning. In the ten years since, physicists have examined how strongly it
interacts with other particles, to see if this matches theoretical predictions.
When two protons collide within the LHC, it is their constituent quarks and
gluons that interact with one another. These high-energy interactions can,
through well-predicted quantum effects, produce a Higgs boson, which would
immediately transform – or “decay” – into lighter particles that ATLAS and CMS detectors
could observe. The scientists therefore needed to build up enough evidence to
suggest that particles that could have appeared from a Higgs production and
transformation were indeed the result of such a process. Interaction strength
can be measured experimentally by looking at Higgs boson production and decay:
the heavier a particle the more likely the Higgs boson is to decay into or be
produced from it. Interaction with tau leptons was discovered in 2016 and
interaction with top and bottom quarks in 2018. But there is much more
still to learn about this elusive particle.
The discovery of the Higgs boson was a historic event, but we
are still only at the beginning in our understanding of this new particle. And
to make some new, much heavier particle and you observe it like the Higgs; the
mass of the thing that you can make is limited by how much energy you can put
into the collision. Scientists are not done, Large Hadron Collider was not
built just to find the Higgs boson it was built to find new particles, LHC was
shut down for maintenance purpose just before the start of Run 3, they tightened
the screws once again as they are going to lift it up to a much higher energy. The
four big LHC experiments have performed major upgrades to their data readout
and selection systems, with new detector systems and computing infrastructure. In
2022 CERN reopened the Large Hadron Collider after a three-year closure to
upgrade the power; at these levels it might be able to find dark matter. The
changes will allow them to collect significantly larger data samples, with data
of higher quality than in previous runs. The LHCb experiment underwent a
complete revamp and looks to increase its data taking rate by a factor of ten,
while ALICE is aiming at a staggering fifty-fold increase in the number of
recorded collisions. Run 3, a new period of data taking, began in July 2022 for
the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), after more than three years
of upgrade and maintenance work; with collisions at unprecedented energy levels
at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) marking the launch of the new physics season
at CERN’s flagship accelerator. The LHC will now run for close to four years at
the record collision energy of 13.6 trillion electronvolts (TeV) – 6.8 TeV per
beam. LHC Run 3 was started on 5 July, the day after the 10th anniversary of
the discovery of the Higgs boson. The ATLAS and CMS detectors expect to record
more collisions during Run 3 than in the two previous runs combined. To
celebrate ten years of Higgs research at the LHC with CERN, the start of Run 3
of the LHC was streamed live on CERN’s social media channels and high quality
Eurovision satellite link on 5 July 2022. CERN invited scientifically oriented
people who are hungry for physics, to be present physically at CERN or online
from around the world to enjoy the celebrations of the anniversary of this
historical discovery, to celebrate past and present achievements for particle
physics and science, to witness the start of Run 3 at the LHC on 5 July and to
understand how CERN is preparing future research. Live commentary in five
languages (English, French, German, Italian and Spanish) from the CERN Control
Centre walked audience through the operation stages that take proton beams from
their injection into the LHC to collision points. A live Q&A session with
experts from the accelerators and experiments concluded the live stream. In
preparation for data taking, the four big LHC experiments performed major
upgrades to their data readout and selection systems, with new detector systems
and computing infrastructure. The changes will allow them to collect
significantly larger data samples, of higher quality than previous
runs. The restart marked the beginning of preparations for the third run
of the LHC, called Run 3, which planed four years of physics-data taking at
world-record collision energy of 13.6 trillion electronvolts (13.6 TeV). The
discovery of the Higgs was such a big deal and now that we have found it, we
can move beyond everyday physics, there are dark matter, dark energy and black
holes out there in the universe. Particle Physicists are hopeful that the Higgs
boson will not simply be the end of one story, but the beginning of the next
era in fundamental physics. The subsequent 10 years prior to Run 3 have seen
impressive advances in our understanding of the Higgs boson's properties, and
how they determine the features of the universe. There is much more still to be
learned and so now...
It’s not the thing that bothers what came first; chicken or eggs?
But the biggest curiosity quest is dark matter with the boson
Higgs.
This is First Deep Field image from NASA’s James Webb Space
Telescope. It is the deepest and sharpest infrared image of the distant
universe to date, looking far back in time when the Universe was less than a
billion years old. This Webb’s First Deep Field image is covering a patch of
sky approximately the size of a grain of sand held at arm’s length by someone
on the ground and yet overflowing with detail as it reveals thousands of
galaxies – including the faintest objects ever observed in the infrared – have
appeared in Webb’s view for the first time in this tiny sliver of vast
Universe. It shows galaxy cluster SMACS 0723 as it appeared 4.6 billion years
ago, with many more galaxies in front of and behind the cluster. There are
stars, the things with the kind of cross twinkie patterns. But everything else,
pretty much, is a galaxy. These are extremely distant galaxies, sort of almost
out to the edge of as far as we can see with telescopes. So, for example, in
the center of the image, you can see there's a kind of cluster of galaxies, kind
of blobs. Now, hopefully you should be able to also see that on this image,
there is this smearing pattern. So there's kind of circular structures arranged
around this central cluster of galaxies. Einstein's notebooks indicate that he
had realized that if an observer was located at the correct distance, the
deflected light rays from around the celestial object would converge to make a
magnified image. This phenomenon is known as gravitational lensing, and the
amount of bending is one of the predictions of Albert Einstein's general theory
of relativity that light should be bent by gravity. Gravitational lensing basically
acts like a lens and we end up getting this kind of smeared multiple image of
the same galaxy across the whole sky, which you can see in this JWST’s first
image so called Webb Deep Field. Now we can use that to measure how much dark matter
there is in the galaxies. There are a number of
different ways of working out how much dark matter is out there in the
universe. So there is the lensing method which can be used across the whole sky
essentially and map the distribution of dark matter by how light is being bent
through space and comparing it with the bending expected from the visible
matter. Because more the gravity means more mass there is, the more strongly
lensed the light will be and more will be the pronounced lensing effect. So we
can use this lensing to effectively work out how much mass there is in the
center of this image. And then we compare that with the visible light that we
can see with our telescopes. We can see there are lots of galaxies here; this
is obviously a very large amount of mass. So if we overlay a map of where the
matter appears to be in this image from lensing, sometimes we actually find a
very large discrepancy between the amount of stuff that we can see with our
telescopes and the amount of stuff that we know needs to be there to explain
this lensing effect; in this way we have evidence of dark matter from lensing. We
can also trace the dark matter by looking at the rotations of stars around
galaxies. We can calculate to a fairly high degree of confidence how much dark
matter is out there, even though we can't see it which Vera Rubin famously
proved it. Vera
Rubin in the 1970s was looking at Andromeda and the other neighboring galaxies;
she measured the rotation speeds of the stars in those galaxies. The expectation was
that these galaxies were like the solar system with most of the mass
concentrated towards the center. So closer to the center of the galaxy you have
lots of gravity and the stars should be orbiting very quickly in order to not
fall into the center and just like the planets the speeds of stars in the spiral
disk were expected to fall as gravity gets weaker towards the edge of the galaxy, but this was not
what Rubin found. The rotation speed of stars did not diminish but remained
roughly the same all the way to the edge of the galaxies. She uncovered the discrepancy between the predicted and observed
angular motion of galaxies by studying galactic rotation curves. Identifying
the galaxy rotation problem, her work provided the first evidence for the
existence of something called dark matter. It is
essentially some kind of invisible substance which we don't know much about but
apparently makes up a very large fraction of the universe.
Multi-wavelength studies have led to the discovery of numerous
new objects in space & have allowed us to "see" the Universe as
never before. With advances in technology & the ability to place telescopes
into space, we can now see the Universe in all of its light! All the
wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum have something important to say. We
can learn from each wavelength, by observing the Universe in a various
wavelengths of light to understand the complete picture. As I said in one of my
blog, “Science Philosophy Singularity” that your shadow is
relative incomplete true based on direction of light on you and so to get the
complete truth of you we need shadows in all direction. Here visible or
infrared light is just like that relative incomplete true and we have to
consider light from all range of electromagnetic spectrum to get complete
absolute truth about universe. Many objects reveal
different aspects of their composition and behavior at different wavelengths.
Objects are completely invisible at one wavelength, yet are clearly visible at
another. Multi-wavelength astronomy fetch us complete picture of the universe
as observing it in different wavelengths from radio, microwave, infrared,
optical, ultraviolet, x-ray to gamma rays. Since the Webb's successful launch last year,
now we have multi-wavelength composite images from Webb and NASA’s great
observatories at various wavelengths. Chandra
is an incredible piece of equipment and it is part of a suite of other
observatories so called NASA's great observatories which includes Hubble,
Spitzer and the Compton gamma-ray observatory. And together what that means is
along with all the other telescopes and observatories around the world; there
is fantastic set of data available to look into and work with. The
multi-wavelength universe is just a really important thing in astronomy to
collect data for many different kinds of light. Webb Deep
Field shows how galaxy cluster SMACS J0723, located ~4.2 billion light-years
away, contains hundreds of galaxies. Galaxy clusters are filled with vast
reservoirs of superheated gas seen only in X-ray light. In the same image later
Chandra data (blue in color) revealed gas with temperatures of tens of millions
of degrees, possessing a total mass about 100 trillion times that of the Sun.
Invisible dark matter forms an even larger fraction of the cluster’s total
mass.
Scientist believes that Standard Model is definitely on to
something as you don't get this kind of result by accident. So it’s a really
stunningly successful theory, but it is not without some problems. And these
problems are actually what motivated, in part, the building of the Large Hadron
Collider in the first place. The discovery of the Higgs which is really kind of
closing the chapter of 20th century physics and the beginning of the next era
in fundamental physics paving the way to new physics. What everyone now
actually is after the answers to some big, unsolved questions that the Standard
Model cannot address. The cosmic pie depicts that ordinary matter of which made
all the galaxies, and stars, and planets in the universe; everything that Standard
Model describes is just 5% of the total content of the universe. And more than
five times of the known universe that we are made of; is the invisible dark
matter stuff which is 27% of that cosmic pie. And then 68% is something even
more mysterious called dark energy, repulsive force that appears to be causing
the universe to expand at an ever-increasing rate. So we don't know the 95% of
the universe, the lesson from this is essentially that the word “dark” in
physics means we don't know what we're talking about and that scientists
themselves get very suspicious because it. That's pretty big of what's out
there, so that is definitely a bit of an omission in the Standard Model. We have
constructed what seems to be this stunningly successful theory over a century
with all these clever experiments backing it up. But then we realize that what
we've been describing is actually only a tiny fraction of the total content of
the universe as having a theory that works really well in the very narrow
domain in which we've applied it, but tells us basically nothing about major content
of the universe. The search for the ultimate laws of nature with particle
physics is nowhere near done and scientists know that they have a long way to
go, but as far as the fundamental physics underlying particle physics is done when
they discovered Higgs boson, the final piece of the puzzle of the matter that
humans are pondering upon for 2,500 years since Democritus. The discovery of
Higgs boson moment on July 4th 2012 is quite historic and not going to be forgotten.
Its discovery in 2012 was a landmark in the history of physics. It explained
something fundamental: how elementary particles that have mass get their
masses. But it also marked something no less fundamental: the beginning of an
era of measuring in detail the particle’s properties and finding out what they
might reveal about the nature of the Universe. The collider had remained shut
for three years as scientists worked on upgrading the facility for higher
proton collisions than in 2012 when the God Particle was discovered, the
detectors, electronics, and computing have all gone through substantial
upgrades. There are also theoretical hints that the new physics should be found
at accessible energy scales. Much of the efforts to find this new physics are
focused on new collider experiments. LHC Run 3 with the increased data samples
and higher collision energy expanded further the already very diverse LHC
physics programme and now scientists at the LHC experiments will be searching
for candidates for dark matter and for other new physics phenomena, either
through direct searches or – indirectly – through precise measurements of
properties of known particles and these more powerful collisions will allow us
to explore further the particle world, and we will certainly learn much more.
